Effectiveness of Distance Education Programs Using On-line Instruction
Table of Contents
Abstract
Section I
IntroductionSection II
Literature Review
Characteristics and Makeup
Tele-Courses
Web-Based/Internet
Key Players
Section III
Benefits
Weaknesses
Conclusions
References
Home
Abstract
BackThis review of the literature examined a number of specific factors—instructor and administrator contact, media of instruction, and characteristics such as key players, and age. In preparation for the review, a search of a number of databases (Education Information Center, ERIC, PsycInfo, EBSCO, and Education Index) was undertaken using the following descriptors: effectiveness, achievements, assessment, or successes of distance education; performance of distance education; differences of distance education; study and review of distance education; comparison of distance and traditional or face-to-face education; administrators and faculty in distance education. It is clear from the review that the findings regarding the effectiveness of distance education programs using on-line instruction are mixed due to the lack of a general consensus, which has been attributed to the lack of common definitions.
Section I Introduction
BackIn the past few years there have been increasing distance education efforts to find out what is essential for effective instruction. The increasing growth and interest in distance education has caused such institutions as Pennsylvania State University, State University of West Georgia, and Indiana State University to introduce several distance education initiatives. For example, Pennsylvania State University established the American Center for the Study of Distance Education, and the State University of West Georgia has an on-line journal called Online-Journal-of-Distance-Learning-Administration.
Since nontraditional students are unable to participate in the traditional or face-to-face form of education because of other obligations, distance education may emerge as an important vehicle in which these students participate in educational activities.
In the process of preparing for this literature review, a search of the following databases was undertaken: Education Information Center, ERIC, PsycInfo, EBSCO, and Education Index. To help guide in searching these databases the researcher used the following descriptors: effectiveness, achievements, assessment, or successes of distance education; performance of distance education; differences of distance education; study and review of distance education; comparison of distance and traditional or face-to-face education; administrators and faculty in distance education.
Distance Education: Definition and Historical Review
BackDefinition
Distance education is beset with a remarkable paradox—it has asserted its existence, but it cannot define itself (Shale, cited in Jeffries, 2002, p. 4).
How distance education is best defined or differentiated from other educational approaches has been the subject of much debate. From the perspective of many educational technologists, distance education is inexorably linked to technology and seems to be viewed as being different from other forms of education, a factor which may contribute to course development and acceptance problems (Garrison, cited in Jeffries, 2002, p. 4).
The Garrison and Shale definitions of distance education offers a minimum set of criteria and allows for flexibility (Jeffries, 2002). They suggest:
1. Distance education implies
that the majority of educational communication between teacher
and student
occurs
non-contiguously.
2. Distance education involves two-way communication between teacher and student
for the purpose of facilitating and supporting the educational process.
3. Distance education uses technology to mediate the necessary two-way communication.
Distance education has been characterized in numerous ways. Garrison and Shale (cited in Butner, 1999, p. 2) argue that it must include technology that is synchronous and mediates two-way conversation for the purpose of advancing the educational process. Moore (cited in Butner, 1999, p. 2) expands the characterization to include instruction through any type of electronic communication or print media. In this case, electronic communication includes asynchronous options such as email, on-line chats, listservs, and video. Print refers to multimedia materials that can be accessed via the World Wide Web. Each agrees that distance education involves the physical separation of faculty and student throughout most of the learning process (Butner, 1999).
Distance education in the most general sense of the term is instruction delivered over a distance to one or more individuals located in one or more venues (Phipps, Wellman, and Merisotis, cited in Lewis, 2000, p. 2).
Historical Review
BackThe history of distance education reveals a field that is in a constant state of evolution. Distance education has shown a stream of new ideas and technologies balanced against a steady resistance to change, and it has often placed technology in the light of promising more than it has delivered. History has shown nontraditional education trying to blend with traditional education while trying to meet the challenge of constantly changing learning theories and evolving technologies.
In 1840, Sir Issac Pitman, the English inventor of shorthand, came up with an ingenious idea for delivering instruction to a potentially limitless audience: correspondence courses by mail (Mathews, 1999). Pitmanís concept was so popular that within a few years he was corresponding with a legion of far-flung learners (Phillips, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 1). Within a few decades, regular, and in some cases, extensive programs were available in the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States and Japan (Curran, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 1). By the 1900ís, the first department of correspondence teaching was established at the University of Chicago (Mathews, 1999).
The first catalog of instruction films appeared in 1910 and 1913 (Reiser, cited in Jeffries, 2002). In tracing the history of distance education, the introduction of television as an instructional medium appears as an important entry point for theorists and practitioners outside of the correspondence education tradition, and marks parallel paths for correspondence study and instructional media (Jeffries, 2002).
The founding of the United Kingdomís Open University (OU) in 1969 marked a significant development of the second phase of distance learning, with its mixed-media approach to teaching (Mathews, 1999). The OU sent learning materials to students by mail. Materials included carefully constructed text, audio and visual materials. These were supplemented by conventional broadcast radio and television. Each student was assigned a tutor who tutored over the telephone and in group sessions in the evenings or on weekends (Mathews, 1999).
BackThere was considerable growth over the ensuing decades. In the United States, by the mid-1980ís, more than 300,000 students were enrolled in university-taught distance education courses. In a number examples, certain open universities have a student population that is bigger than that of the median-size university in the same country, and in a few cases bigger than the largest traditional university. The growth over time in the range of programs provided, and the kind of student populations served has, in both cases, reinforced the trend toward further growth (Curran, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 2). The majority of higher education institutions in the United States have distance learning programs (Lewis, Alexander, Farris, & Greene, 1997). According to the United States Department of Education, about a quarter of the U.S. institutions that offered distance education courses in the fall of 1995 offered degrees that students could complete by taking distance education courses exclusively, and seven percent offered certificates that could be completed that way (Lewis, Alexander, Farris, & Greene, 1997). There were an estimated 690 degrees and 170 certificates issued by 2-year and 4-year institutions in 1995 (Lewis, et al. 1997).
As of 1997, enrollment had grown to become a substantive part of the university student population in many countries. In a number of countries, distance education students compose some 10-14 percent of the total undergraduate student population, and in a few cases the population is as high as 39-40 percent (Curran, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 2.).
Distance education has been perceived as an increasingly effective method of instruction, and as a result, educational researchers have examined the purposes and situations for which distance education is best suited. What cost factors should be considered when planning or implementing distance education programs and how are those costs offset by benefits to the learner? (Willis, 2002).
The question for this review is: How effective are distance education programs? The following review of studies attempt to answer this question.
O'Mally (1999) did a study that attempted to find studentsí perception of distance learning, online learning and the traditional classroom. There were two primary goals for the research: first to find out if students believed that online or distance learning teaching methodologies were as effective as the traditional methodology and second, what dimensions of online or distance learning provided benefits to students. The results of a survey of 128 students indicated that they did not perceive that online learning and distance learning were similar, so separate analyses were conducted. The results were that students perceived that online learning had a significant relative advantage to traditional methodologies. Interestingly, students preferred traditional courses to online learning courses although they wanted more online learning courses.
Schutte (1996) used a sample of 33 students (17 in the traditional class, 16 in the online class). The purpose of the study was to test the effects of face-to-face vs. virtual professor-student interaction, on test performance of students. A pre-test and post-test questionnaire was used. Results demonstrated that the virtual class scored an average of 20 percent higher than the traditional class on both exams.
Wegner (1999) utilized a problem-based approach on the World Wide Web sampled an experimental (N = 14) and control group (N = 17). The question asked was, would there be any significant difference in student achievement, as measured by teacher-prepared tests, between students taking a course in an Internet-based environment versus those who receive instruction in the more traditional, in-class model? The experimental group members were debriefed, given exit interviews, filled out surveys and took the exact final examination as the control group which was held simultaneously on campus. A t-test for Independent samples was administered to the test results. The final exam scores for the control group averaged 92.5 while the internet scores averaged 90.4, an insignificant difference. After an item analysis was performed, the experimental group actually outperformed the control group on both the objective portion of the test.
Clark (1990) compared the test scores of National Fire Academy (NFA) students who received on-campus classroom instruction and students who received the same instruction delivered by satellite teleconference. The control group consisted of 34 students and the experimental group consisted of 35 students attending a teleconference site. The test instrument developed for this study was a criterion-referenced, multiple-choice, 10-item test, examined for reliability and validity. Results showed that the experimental group had a mean of 7.3, whereas the control group had a mean of 9.6. It was concluded that although the on-campus group scored higher on the test, both groups did learn.
Gray (1990) was guided by the question, "How would student learning experiences with a hybrid approach to web delivered courses compare with the traditional course delivery?" Eighty-four students in four educational leadership courses were involved in the study. A numerical rating scale was used. The author found that students who participated in the online evaluation indicated that they were generally satisfied with their learning experience.
Kubala (1998) wanted to find out how students felt about a distance learning course. The sample included all the students that took the distance learning course. Students completed an evaluation instrument that was part of the course material. He found that all respondents said that web-based courses met their learning needs, and that they would recommend these types of distance learning courses to their friends.
Yaw (2001) asked, "What is the grade difference between distance learners and classroom learners in the Human Resource Development curriculum at the graduate level?" There were 199 students in the study with 118 of them classroom learners and 81 of them distance learners. An SPSS windows computer application using a two-way Anova test was used. The results showed no significant difference between the grade point of distance learners and the classroom learners in the two groups. After performing a two-way Anova test on the grade points of the two groups, it was found that the data on distance learning was favorable.
Dominguez (1999) reassessed the assessment of distance education courses. He asked: Do online courses prepare students for advanced study as well as traditionally accepted forms of prerequisites? A sample of 44 online enrollments were used for the experiment, and the method used was fisherís exact test of significance. He concluded that the online course included in the sample prepared students for advanced study at least as well as the traditionally accepted forms of perquisites. He further found that there was no statistically significant difference in studentsí final grades.
Buchanan (2000) had a total of 129 pre-test and post-test surveys completed by traditional students and 53 similar surveys in the web-based were received. t-tests were conducted comparing average final course grades between traditional and web-based section of the same course. Overall, there were no significant differences in four of the six courses (p > 0.05). There were significant differences in two of the courses, in one case favoring the web-based course (p < 0.005), in the other the traditional classroom environment (p < 0.028).
Johnson, Aragon, Shaik, and Palma-Rivas (1999) compared a graduate online course with an equivalent course taught in a traditional face-to-face format to identify differences and similarities in a variety of outcome measures. Nineteen students were enrolled in an on-campus course, and 19 were enrolled in the online version of the course. The course interaction, structure, and support (CISS) instrument was used. The results showed that online learning can be as effective as face-to-face learning in spite of the fact that students in online programs were not as satisfied with their experience as students in more traditional learning environments.
Tucker's (2001) goal was to determine whether distance education was as effective as traditional face-to-face education. Twenty-three students were in the traditional class and 24 enrolled in the distance class. The study examined pre-test and post-test scores, final exam scores, final course grades, and preferred learning styles of both groups (control and experimental) of students. Means, standard deviations, and t-statistics were obtained for the traditional class and the distance education class. Results indicated that distance education can be just as effective as traditional face-to-face education. No significant differences existed between pre-test scores and final course grades. However, analysis of data revealed that there were significant differences between the distance education class and the traditional class with regard to post-test scores, final exam scores, and studentsí age.
While authors of a few experimental research studies have compared effectiveness of online instruction to the more traditional face-to-face offering, a recent study provided encouraging results for developers of online instruction. (Johnson, et al, 1999). LaRose, Gregg, and Eastin (cited in Johnson, et al, 1999. p. 5) compared the learning outcomes of students in a traditional lecture section to the performance of students who participated in a course section that provided pre-recorded audio via the World Wide Web (WWW) along with detailed course outlines and related course pages accessed on the Web. Results showed that the group that learned on the Web had test scores and student attitude ratings that were equal to those of the traditional section.
Gurbuz, Yildirim, and Ozden's (2000-2001) ) compared the effectiveness of two computer literacy courses (one was offered online and the other was offered through traditional methods). The researcher used data from 209 students of which 69 of them attended online computer literacy course, and 140 attended the traditional computer literacy course. For those student teachers with prior knowledge of computers, the data from the study indicated that they developed some-what positive attitudes, their anxiety was lowered, and confidence was increased with computers following the participation in a computer literacy course. On the other hand, student teachers with little or no prior knowledge of computers expected computer literacy course to introduce them to basic computer skills and applications.
Yellen (1997) tried to determine if distance learning students are different from traditional students as concerns their motivation, wants, and what they receive from their educational experience. Ninety-two subjects in the university wide required course and thirty-one subjects in the capstone course completed the survey. The differences between these two groups was found to be small. The major difference uncovered was that distance learning students were less dissatisfied with what they received from the educational experience. The study also uncovered that differences in type of students were between those who were motivated by a desire to learn the material versus those who were taking the course to satisfy some higher requirement, such as getting a degree from the institution.
Johnson (2001) examined policies and practices in the utilization of interactive television and web-based delivery models in public universities. The question was to determine what, if any specific issues appeared to be of interest and or concern in the implementation of distance learning models. The instrument used was a 43 question survey. A total of 110 surveys were mailed out to deans of colleges of education at public universities in 13 mid-western states, and 83 were returned. The findings stated that the majority of colleges of education deans indicated that their institutions were offering distance learning opportunities to their service areas. Of the institutions who were not currently using distance learning, the large majority (90 percent) indicated that plans were in place to implement this delivery model in the near future.
Rockwell, Furgason, and Marx, (2000) looked into whether proposed objectives were sufficiently responsive to the assessed needs. Three groups of distance educators participated. The three groups included a five-member steering committee, a 43-member Delphi panel, special interest groups, K-12 teachers, community leaders, and college professors. A CIPP (context, input, process and product) model provided a structure for looking at distance teaching/earning evaluation needs. It was found, in relation to distance learners, that understanding the characteristics of distance learners ranked high. They were less interested in exploring problems learners had using the technology. Distance educators felt that assessing outcomes in formal higher education was very important, as were outcomes reached in K-12.
Husmann and Miller (2001) asked, "What can administrators in distance education do to improve distance learning program quality and success?" The sample yielded a response rate of 43 percent from the total population of 60 administrators who managed distance education programs within their individual institutions. The researchers used a Delphi procedure. The results showed that administrators supported the concept of providing special grants to faculty who may be pioneers in the use of distance education technologies, providing a reward system which assured faculty recognition or compensation for innovative and creative efforts, and developing new courses and workshops to respond to industry changes and trends.
Cartwright (1999) examined assessing distance learning using a website survey. The goal of the study was to assess the extent that graduate-level courses met quality assurance standards for distance learning. He used a single survey instrument that incorporated both quality assurance standards and student opinion of instruction survey (SOIS) questions. The questionnaire was 48 questions long. The results showed that students were pleased with their distance learning courses. On a seven point Likert scale, the average score was 6.0. The overall assessment was either a 6 or 7 for 86 percent of the cases. Over 95 percent of the Spring of 1999 student respondents said they would take another distance education course. Students were not as happy with their instructors in a distance education setting as they were in a classroom setting.
Webster (1997) studied 29 of 30 technology-mediated distance learning courses taught during two semesters. Questionnaires were returned by 247 students, representing a response rate of 69 percent. The average course size was 16 students. The purpose of the study was to find out whether students in courses using full-motion video will perceive the technology used in distance learning to be richer than students in courses using compressed video. The students in the compressed video class complained about the time lags in audio and video. In other findings, for instance, very different audience behaviors were noticed at remote sites. Students at remote sites did not act as if they were involved in the courses. Second, many students clearly recognized the advantages of distance learning technologies. Students noted that gaining exposure to professors and other universities otherwise unavailable, and ability to learn material from experts in the field as advantages.
Hertenstein (1999) examined distance learning in labor education. This study examined the reactions of labor education college credit course participants at a major Midwestern public university between 1993 and 1997. Fifty-nine students participated in the study by voluntarily filling out questionnaires about their reactions to the classes; 18 were in the traditional classes, and 41 in the virtual classroom. The results were that the participants in distance classes were more satisfied than those in the traditional classes.
Sandercock and Shaw (1999) conducted a study to determine the effects of providing learning materials and support to distance learners through the use of the web course tools (CT) environment on their performance in a preliminary level sports science module. Eighty students took part in the study. They were divided into control and experimental groups. Surveys were administered through questionnaires. An independent t-test revealed no significant difference between either the course work or examination marks for each group. Further analysis of the responses to the standard end of the questionnaire showed no difference in evaluation of the course between the two groups on the selected items on the questionnaire referring to course delivery.
Butner (1999) examined delivery methods, source of funding, and faculty workload and compensation as they relate to distance education. He utilized a survey research design; 148 surveys were mailed to the program director/coordinators of higher education programs. Of the 148 surveys, 86 were returned for a response rate of 58 percent. It was found that traditional classroom instruction continues to be the principle method for delivery of graduate courses in higher education programs, and that interactive TV remains the dominant method of distance course delivery. Distance education delivered via the internet was mostly used to deliver content geared toward the community college learner.
Karsenti (1990) wanted to understand the motivational impact of the implementation of two courses held on the web. Three groups of 36, 48, and 52 university students in their second year of a 4 year teaching program and enrolled in the a web-based course were selected to participate. An adapted version of a motivation in education scale developed in Canada was used to analyze the data. The results showed that while the analysis of the results revealed the positive impact of a course given on the web on studentsí motivation to learn, the analyses conducted also unveiled the fact that all students may not be ready to handle such autonomy, and that the gap between the face-to-face classroom and the virtual classroom is substantial, often difficult to bridge.
Miller (2001) examined the effect that computer mediated communication (CMC) had on learner activity levels in a self-regulated ALN environment and to determine whether or not CMC could be used to positively influence the learning process. There were 62 students in the course. Students were informed that their activity levels would be monitored. An activity report was generated for each student every five days. The results seemed to support the overall proposition that some students need structure in their course activities and that this structure could be facilitated through feedback from the instructor via e-mail messages. For some students, the course was truly self-regulated and the e-mail cues may not have had any effect.
Many proponents of online education suggest that a strategy for successful asynchronous learning network (ALN) implementation include a method of monitoring student participation and activity levels (Palloff and Pratt, cited in Miller, 2001, p. 1).
Lewis (2000) used a postsecondary education quick information system (PEQIS), the findings suggested that distance education was becoming an increasingly visible feature of postsecondary education in the United States. Between 1995 and 1997-98, the percentage of higher education institutions offering distance education courses increased by about one-third, from 33 percent to 44 percent. From 1995 to 1997-98, the number of course offerings and enrollments in distance education approximately doubled. Although the percentages of institutions offering distance education degree and certificate programs were essentially the same in 1997-98 as in 1995, the number of degree and certificate programs that were offered nearly doubled. Taken together, these findings suggest that the expansion in distance education appears to be among institutions that have offered distance education in the past 3 years. Among all higher education institutions offering any distance education, the percentages of institutions using two-way interactive video and one-way prerecorded video were essentially the same in 1997-98 as in 1995. The percentage of institutions using asynchronous Internet-based technologies, however, nearly tripled, from 22 percent of institutions in 1995 to 60 percent of institutions in 1997-98.
Characteristics and Makeup
BackA wide range of technological options are available to distance educators. They fall into four major categories: Voice, Video, Data, and Print (Willis, 2002). Voice, instructional audio tools include the interactive technologies of telephone, audio-conferencing, and short-wave radio. Video, instructional video tools include still images such as slides, pre-produced moving images (e.g., film and videotape), and real time moving images combined with audio-conferencing (one-way or two-way video with two-way audio). Data, computers send and receive information electronically. For this reason, the term ìdataî is used to describe this broad category of instructional tools. Print is a foundational element of distance education programs and is a basis from which all other delivery systems have evolved. Various print formats that are available include: textbooks, study guides, workbooks, course syllabi, and case studies (Willis, 2002).
Tele-courses
BackTele-courses are served by two technologies: instructional television (ITV) and interactive videoconferencing (IV). Instructional television (ITV) may be either passive or interactive. Passive ITV typically involves pre-produced programs which are distributed by video cassette or by video-based technologies such as broadcast, cable, or satellite. In contrast, interactive ITV provides opportunities for viewer interaction, either with a live instructor or a participating student site. For example, two-way television with two-way audio allows all students to view and interact with the teacher (Lochte, cited in (Willis, 2002, p. 1).
Interactive videoconferencing (IV) can be integrated into the distance education program with minimal adaptation to the curriculum and course, and is designed to support two-way video and audio communication between multiple locations. Most IV systems utilize compressed digital video for the transmission of motion images over data networks such as high capacity Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN). The video compression process decreases the amount of data transmitted over the lines by transmitting only the changes in the picture. By minimizing the bandwidth required to transmit the images , video compression also reduces the transmission cost (Willis 2002).
BackThe Internet is the largest, most powerful computer network in the world. It encompasses 1.3 million computers with Internet addresses that are used by up to 30 million people in more than 50 countries. As more and more colleges, universities, schools, companies, and private citizens connect to the Internet either through affiliations with regional not-for-profit networks or by subscribing to information services provided by for-profit companies, more possibilities are opened for distance educators to overcome time and distance to reach students. With access to the Internet, distance educators and their students can use electronic mail (e-mail), bulletin boards, and the World Wide Web (WWW). Like postal mail, e-mail is used to exchange messages or other information with people. Bulletin boards can be accessed through the Internet. Two common public bulletin boards on the Internet are USENET and LISTSERV. The WWW is an exciting and innovative front-end to the Internet. The WWW provides Internet users with a uniform and convenient means of accessing the wide variety of resources (pictures, text, data, sound, and video) available on the Internet. Popular software interfaces (browsers), such as Netscape and Internet Explorer, facilitate navigation and use of the WWW (Willis, 2002).
Distance education would not get off the ground without the people involved who are responsible for making it function smoothly.
Distance Education: Key Players
BackWillis (2002) briefly describes the role of key players in the distance education enterprise and the challenges they face. The key players are: students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
Meeting the instructional needs of students is the cornerstone of every effective distance education program, and the test by which all efforts in the field are judged. When instruction is delivered at a distance, additional challenges result because students are often separated from others sharing their backgrounds and interests, have few if any opportunities to interact with teachers outside of class, and must rely on technical linkages to bridge the gap separating class participants (Willis, 2002).
The success of any distance education effort rests squarely on the shoulders of the faculty. Special challenges confront those teaching at a distance. For example, the instructor must develop an understanding of the characteristics and needs of distance students with little first-hand experience and limited, if any, face-to-face contact; adapt teaching styles taking into consideration the need and expectations of multiple, often diverse, audiences; develop a working understanding of delivery technology, while remaining focused on their teaching role; function effectively as a skilled facilitator as well as content provider (Willis, 2002).
The instructor often finds it beneficial to rely on a site facilitator to act as a bridge between the students and the instructor. To be effective, a facilitator must understand the students being served and the instructorís expectations. Facilitators set up equipment, collect assignments, proctor tests, and act as the instructorís on-site eyes and ears (Willis, 2002).
Support Staff are the silent heroes of the distance education enterprise and ensure that the myriad details required for program success are dealt with effectively. Most successful distance education programs consolidate support service functions to include student registration, material duplication and distribution, textbook ordering securing of copyright clearances, facilities scheduling, processing grade reports, and managing technical resources (Willis, 2002).
Effective distance education administrators are more than idea people. They are consensus builders, decision makers, and referees. They work closely with technical and support services personnel, ensuring that technological resources are effectively deployed to further the institutionís academic mission. Most importantly, they maintain an academic focus, realizing that meeting the instructional needs of distant students is their ultimate responsibility (Willis, 2002).
Section III Distance Education: Benefits and Weakness
BackThere are benefits and drawbacks to offering distance education.
Benefits
The benefits most often associated with distance education include: time and place flexibility, access to more resources, increased learning and teaching strategies, and individuation of learning. (Niemi & Gooler, cited in Butner, 1999, p. 6).
Benefits to the student include: increased access to higher education (particularly for the nontraditional student), flexible scheduling of personal time, convenient location, individualized attention by the instructor, less travel, and increased time to think about, and respond to (via e-mail or discussion boards), questions posed by the instructor (Mathews, 1999).
The institutions also reap benefits from offering distance education. It increases enrollment, attracts new teaching staff (those interested in distance education), reduces the need to build and maintain university campuses and buildings, offers a new level of communication with students, requires the university to keep abreast of new technology, and signals the public that the institution is forward thinking and technologically advanced. (Mathews, 1999).
Searching the Eric database a study was found that looked at the strengths of an interactive video program. Strengths of the interactive video program were summed to form five major categories: access, sociability, learning, student behavior, and other (Witta, 1999). Access included such responses as classes available at a remote site, more can take, wider access, and take previously unavailable class. Sociability included responses such as meet more people, interaction with other schools, and meeting different schools. The student behavior category included responses of greater student responsibility, and increased listening. The learning category contained responses such as instruction, technology exposure, and more interesting. The other category was included for all responses that could not be summed to a major group. Included in this category was saves money. (Witta, 1999).
It has been suggested that the benefits of implementing distance education programs also accrue students. Accordingly, the primary benefit of distance education may be that it has the potential to provide access to postsecondary education where otherwise it might not have been available, due to such constraints as geography, time, job and family responsibilities, or finances (Sherron and Boettcher, cited in Lewis, 2000, p. 2).
Weakness
BackThe weaknesses of distance education include the following: cost of entry, cost of educational materials, labor intensive, cost to the student, and inadequate reflection, conversation and intellectual dialogue.
The entry cost to quality distance education can be substantial. Distance education is a capital-intensive business. Investments in computers, virtual libraries, central servers and data networks, ongoing technical support, program development cost, and marketing can discourage institutions from pursuing distance education. (Hall, P., cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 3).
There is a need to develop world-class educational materials (Emmert, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 3). Learning materials must be constructed that anticipate the learning problems of the isolated student, and can provide a wide range of activities that will support learning (Hall, P., cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 3).
Distance education is more time-consuming (Guemsey, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 3); it is more labor intensive to teach an online class than it is a regular chalk-and-chalk class. (Hall, P., cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 3).
A distance education course can be more expensive than traditional courses because of the need to recoup some of the costs of technical support, course development and instructorsí salaries (Bremmer, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 3).
Distance education limits the extent to which students can reflectively browse in their subject matter with their peers and engage in exploratory discussion of their discipline (Curran, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 3). Distance learning might be inadequate for deliberation and discourse among students, their instructors and their peers. There is value in being at a university campus, interacting socially and intellectually with fellow students and teachers. (Plant, cited in Mathews, 1999, p. 3).
Wittaís (1999) study looked at weaknesses that were coded by response and summed to form five categories: equipment, instruction, student behavior, scheduling, and other. The equipment category consisted of sound, camera, and equipment failure. Instruction included responses such as one-on-one difficult at remote site, teacher attention divided, and lack of personal attention with teacher. The student behavior category contained responses such as easy to cheat at remote site, noisy, and pay less attention. Scheduling consisted of scheduling conflicts, holidays not the same, and class time not the same. Other contained any response that could fit in another category such as no field trip. (Witta, 1999).
Butner (1999) includes cost, equity of access, faculty comfort in using the new technology, and maintenance of quality instruction as some of the weaknesses found in distance education.
One study found that frustrations impede studentsí learning. Frustration interferes with pursuing goals (Reber, cited in Hara, 1999) and thus it is one of the factors that that influence learning.
Conclusion
BackThis review has looked into the definition of distance education, the history of distance education, the characteristics and makeup of distance education, the key players in distance education, and even looked into the benefits and weaknesses of distance education.
The purpose of this review was to examine the literature on effectiveness of distance education programs using on-line instruction. It is clear from the review of the literature that the findings regarding the effectiveness of distance education programs are mixed. For example, the inconclusive research findings of the final outcomes expressed by various researchers, and the lack of a general consensus in the findings have been attributed to the lack of common definitions and terms used, and the differences in the types of institutions in which the studies were conducted.
The scholars in this review that emphasized the positive aspects of distance learning were OíMally, 1999; Schutte, 1996; Wegner, 1999; Clark, 1990; Gray, 1990; Kubala, 1998; Yaw, 2001; Dominguez, 1999; Buchanan, 2000; Tucker, 2001; Lewis, 2000. Only a few scholars (e.g., Johnson, 1999; Gurbuz, 2000; Yellen, 1997) had mixed results. Scholars who did research on distance learning, but did not address the topic were Johnson, 2001; Rockwell, 2000; Husman, 2001; Cartwright, 1999; Webster, 1997; Hertenstein, 1999; Sandercock, 1999; Butner, 1999; Karsenti, 1990; Miller, 2001.
An often-cited report entitled The No Significant Difference Phenomenon (Russell, cited in Lewis, 2000) compiled hundreds of sources that indicated that the learning outcomes of distance education students were similar to the learning outcomes of traditional on-campus students. This review also suggests that the attitudes and satisfaction of distance education students were generally positive. A few reviews of the studies were critical, arguing that there was no conclusive evidence to indicate that student learning outcomes were higher in the vast majority of distance education settings than in traditional on-campus ones.
Educational practitioners who may enroll or develop on-line courses need to be familiar with the limitations of on-line programs. Such an awareness will ensure that the expectations of the learners are met and the intended course goals can be attained. Until the technologies for on-line instruction better simulate real time interaction, program developers need to avoid course that require frequent socialization between student and instructor (Johnson, Aragon, Shaik, and Palma-Rivas (1999).
References
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